It is difficult to build utopian housing in a non-utopian world. Could 3-D printing be the answer?
One day, Ballard told Jenny that his heart wasn’t in TreeHouse anymore. “ ‘Guilt’ isn’t the right word,” he told me. “But I’m losing faith that the world will be different because of this business. Something much more radical has to happen.”
Strandlund eventually filed for bankruptcy, and Fuller never managed to mass-produce residential domes, but Levitt’s influence on the built environment persists. Today, new-home construction is dominated by production builders who, like Levitt, buy tracts of land and erect houses by the thousands, keeping costs low by building at scale.
The idea of “printing” a building with concrete originated with Behrokh Khoshnevis, an engineering professor at the University of Southern California. In the nineteen-nineties and early two-thousands, Khoshnevis, an early proponent of small-scale 3-D printing with plastics and metals, began experimenting with using the technology to make much bigger objects—industrial parts, at first, and then, eventually, buildings. His printer consisted of a nozzle attached to a movable gantry crane.
Ballard’s grand statements about the future of 3-D printing haven’t endeared him to everyone in the industry. Philip Lund-Nielsen is a co-founder ofInternational, a 3-D-printing construction company headquartered in Copenhagen. “Let me just put it this way,” he said. “There’s a lot of U.S. companies that are very, very ambitious, or optimistic, in their marketing materials.
Ballard believed that one reason previous attempts to commercialize 3-D-printed construction had failed was a lack of attention to aesthetics. He got frustrated when he saw 3-D-printed houses that looked just like their traditionally built equivalents. It was as easy to print a curved line as a straight one, so why force the material into right angles? He liked to scroll through the sinuous imaginary structures people made using such A.I. art programs as Dall-E and Midjourney.
Icon’s first foray into the expressive potential of 3-D-printed architecture was House Zero, a two-thousand-square-foot luxury home designed by the Texas architects Lake Flato. I met Ballard at the house last February, shortly after it was completed. Ballard had asked Lake Flato to design a structure that would show off the distinctive potential of printed architecture. The hallways were undulating and the rooms had curved edges. The ribbed concrete walls were left unpainted.
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